Responsibilities and Relationships in Education and Training Essay Example for Free

Responsibilities and Relationships in Education and Training Essay The Teaching Role and Responsibilities In Education And Training The role of ‘teacher’ is an infinitely varied one, but there certain principles which underpin all aspects of the teaching role. Whether we are attempting to teach from personally acquired experience or knowledge, or from third party information, the process of teaching can be formalized into a structured process with the aim of maximizing the potential for learning. Numerous models exist with the aim of outlining the key stages of this process. For example, Gravells (2010) identifies them as such: Identification of Need →Planning and Design→Delivery/Facilitation→Assessment→Evaluation In order to undertake each of these stages successfully, the role of the teacher becomes multi-faceted. For example, conducting initial interviews with students helps to establish individual aims and identify particular learning styles such as those recognised by Honey Mumford (1992). This should enable to the teacher to tailor their teaching style and utilize a variety of methods, while also providing an opportunity to set clear goals which can be used as a benchmark when reviewing students’ progress. Accurate documentation of this is essential and forms part of the teachers’ responsibility. Furthermore, whilst undertaking these roles as a teacher, it is vitally important to consider the parameters in which we must operate. These are most likely to be defined by legal requirement – for example the Equality Act (2010) or the policies or the organization for which we may be working. Ultimately, it is down to the individual teacher to ensure their own professional conduct at all times. References: Equality Act (2010). London: HMSO. Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/contents Accessed 25/11/2014. Gravells, A (2010) ‘Preparing to Teach in the Lifelong Learning Sector’. 3rd Ed. Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd. Honey P., Mumford A. (1992) ‘The Manual of Learning Styles’ 3rd Ed. Maidenhead, Peter Honey. Summarise Key Aspects Of Legislation, Regulatory Requirements And Codes Of Practice Relating To Own Role And Responsibilities There are many aspects to consider when discussing the conduct of a teacher and the requirements therein. Some of these are legal frameworks, others are more informal but equally important in terms of setting out guidelines for good practice. All of these requirements, when adhered to, help to ensure that as teachers, we are providing a safe, secure and successful learning environment. As students, they provide reassurance that care will be taken to promote inclusivity, maintain trust and ensure wellbeing. Some Codes of Practice will be designed to suit individual environments and will vary accordingly. Therefore care should be taken to ensure we are familiar with the particular requirements of the company or institution in which we are operating. Other codes are overarching and apply in all circumstances. One of the more recent of these is the ‘Statutory Special Educational Needs and Disability System for Children And Young People’ (SEND) which came into force on 1 September 2014 and explains the duties of schools and colleges to provide adjustments and aids for disabled children and young people up to 25. Legal acts which are underpinned by law are further reaching but equally apply. These include things such as the long standing 1974 Health and Safety  and Work Act, which ensures the â€Å"health, safety and welfare of persons at work† as well as â€Å"protecting others against risks to health or safety in connection with the activities of persons at work†. However, in the constantly shifting legal landscape, we should be mindful of new legislation coming into force. Finally, there are, of course, directives issued by professional bodies such the Institute for Learning which has a Code of Professional Practice (2008) covering 7 key areas: Integrity Respect Care Practice Disclosure Responsibility References: Department for Education (2014). ‘SEND code of practice: 0 to 25 years’. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/send-code-of-practice-0-to-25 Accessed 29/11/2014 Institute for Learning (2008). ‘Code of Practice’ Available at: https://www.ifl.ac.uk/membership/ifl-code-of-professional-practice/view-the-code-of-professional-practice/ Accessed 1/12/2014 Explain Why It Is Important To Identify And Meet Individual Learner Needs As we have established previously, the first step in the (Gravells, 2010). Teaching and Learning Cycle is ‘Identifying need’. Without properly ascertaining this, the further steps in the cycle become more difficult to achieve and the chance for success is significantly diminished. Furthermore, informing learners of objectives creates a level of expectation for learning (Gagne, 1965). In order to avoid this outcome and the negative implications of failing to succeed, we must have a clear approach. Prior to the start of any learning activity, there will, by necessity be a  process which ostensibly is an administrative exercise. However, these interactions provide an excellent opportunity to engage with students in a way which could provide useful information. For example, noting that a student may have difficulty with grammar or spelling when completing a written questionnaire may indicate a greater need for support with literacy. Or, a student struggling to get to grips with viewing digital information such as a Powerpoint or PDF file could highlight a lack of I.T skill. It is important that we use all of these tools at our disposal, as acknowledging a perceived ‘flaw’ in ourselves is not always an easy thing to do. Students may be unwilling because of stigma or embarrassment or simply through an inability to recognize that a problem exists, which is an issue in roughly 30% of adults (Skills for Life Survey, 2011). However, individual needs may not be only be based on academic ability or skillset, there are a multitude of different needs which may exist and it is important to consider a holistic approach. Some students may have no difficulty with course content but may be distracted by other personal problems which affect their ability to learn. These could include financial difficulty, bereavement or an underlying health issue. Ultimately, the importance of identifying and meeting learners’ needs is about providing the best possibility for successful learning through providing support where it is most needed. References: Gagnà ©, R. M. (1965). ‘The conditions of learning and theory of instruction’ (1st ed.) Holt, Rinehart Winston: New York. Gravells, A (2010) ‘Preparing to Teach in the Lifelong Learning Sector’. 3rd Ed. Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd. Skills for Life Survey (2011). Department for Business, Innovation Skills. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/2011-skills-for-life-survey Accessed 1/12/14. Explain Ways To Maintain a Safe And Supportive Learning Environment As part of providing students with the best opportunity for success, it is crucial that the learning environment is both safe and supportive. These aspects are intertwined in that their aim is to create an environment where consideration for all matters other than the subject itself can be put aside to concentrate on learning. When operating in any environment, safety is the first issue. A risk assessment should be carried out prior to beginning any teaching session to establish whether hazards exist, and if so what extent they pose a risk (Trades Union Congress, 2008). These factors should also be assessed dynamically and any new or developing threat should be treated as a priority. When working in an environment such as a client office or business premises, safety considerations should include awareness of the existing plan of evacuation in case of fire. Any issues which are identified (such as blocked exits etc) should be bought up with the client in a professional manner. Support for learners may be provided in several ways. On a personal level, it is ensuring inclusivity for all students, treating each individual with respect and tolerance, as well as providing individually tailored help to match the needs identified in the first stage of the Teaching and Learning Cycle (Gravells, 2008). However, support is also provided through recognizing the need to give adequate breaks and availability of resources required to undertake the learning process properly. It is vital that consideration is given to these factors in the planning stage so that support may be implemented pro-actively rather than reactively. References: Trades Union Congress (2008) ‘Risk Assessment’. Precision Printing: London. Available online at: http://www.tuc.org.uk/sites/default/files/extras/riskassessment.pdf Accessed 1/12/14 Gravells, A (2010) ‘Preparing to Teach in the Lifelong Learning Sector’. 3rd Ed. Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd. Explain Why It Is Important To Promote Appropriate Behaviour and Respect For Others The importance of appropriate behavior is paramount as it will set the correct tone for a learning environment. Fundamentally, it is about the rights of learners to have access to, attend, and participate in their chosen learning experience regardless of their circumstances. (Equality Act, 2010) The best way to promote this is to set the example as the teacher (School of Educators, 2011). This can be achieved in a variety of ways. Ensuring that the planning of any session has been properly executed will help to demonstrate basic values such as organization, efficiency and punctuality and when delivering a session, using appropriate tone and language will exhibit the kinds of behaviour which we want to see reflected in students. It is also important that we are focused on the task at hand and are not distracted by outside influences. Something as simple as switching off a mobile phone could make all the difference. In that regard, requesting students to put their phones into ‘silent’ mode is something which could help to avoid them becoming distracted but also establishes a basic ground rule while not necessarily conveying the same message as ‘please all turn your phones off’. Where undesirable behaviour occurs, it is important to consider whether addressing it may in fact be more of a disruption than the behaviour itself, however, where it needs to be addressed, this should be done so quickly and professionally. However, it is important to note that students, like teachers should incorporate humour into learning. Using humour in the classroom shows that you are human and consequently encourages students to like and respect you. Being able to laugh at yourself when you make a mistake offers a good counterbalance to the moment when you must be strict and so helps lighten the classroom atmosphere (Cowley, 2007) Treating students as individuals but with equal respect will help to promote the same response from them. Therefore, care should be taken to listen to, appreciate and encourage individual contributions, this is especially true in the case of adult learners who bring their own experiences to the learning setting. References: Cowley, S. (2007) ‘Guerilla Guide to Teaching: The Definitive Resource for New Teachers’ (2nd Ed.) Continuum: London. Equality Act (2010). London: HMSO. Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/contents Accessed 04/12/2014. School of Educators (2011). ‘The Characteristics of a Good Teacher’. Available online at: http://schoolofeducators.com/2011/05/the-characteristics-of-a-good-teacher/ Accessed 4/12/14. Explain How the Teaching Role Involves Working with Other Professionals As a teacher, there will always be a requirement to liaise and work with other professionals, and this is likely to occur in a number of ways. When employed in a teaching role, we act as a representative of the organization which employs us, and we have a responsibility to represent that organization in a professional manner. Equally, when dealing with internal colleagues, whether a manager or a colleague at the same level of seniority, we are dutybound to treat others with respect, politeness and courtesy. Values which all form part of the Institute for Learning ‘Code of Practice’ (2008). Remembering that we have a responsibility to act according to these guidelines can be especially important when faced with other professionals who may be challenging or difficult in their approach. For example, in a  client situation, a Manager who is under pressure is annoyed because some of his staff are being abstracted from their usual duties to undertake training. In this situation, it is feasible that a degree of hostility may be directed toward the trainer. In acknowledging the managers concerns and highlighting the benefit of the training both to the staff and the manager, we may be able to defuse the situation rather than escalate it. Of course, students themselves can be professionals and care must be taken to acknowledge the professional standing of adult learners so that we do not condescend or patronize. However, we also have a responsibility to care for our students and where it is highlighted that a student may have a need or issue which requires third party support, we may need to act as an advocate or intervene to flag potential issues. Legislation such as The Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act (2006) make it potentially necessary to liaise with other professional agencies and, depending on the nature of the matter, it may be appropriate to use care or discretion. In all cases, it is appropriate that we remain professional and impartial. References: Institute for Learning (2008). ‘Code of Practice’ Available at: https://www.ifl.ac.uk/membership/ifl-code-of-professional-practice/view-the-code-of-professional-practice/ Accessed 1/12/2014 Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act (2006). London: HMSO. Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/47/section/6 Accessed 4/12/14 Explain the Boundaries Between the Teaching Role and Other Professional Roles In dealing with other professional roles, there must come a point at which the boundaries of our own role are recognized to avoid us ‘overstepping the line’. This can apply on either a professional or personal level and works in two ways: our behaviour toward others and their behaviour towards us. The key basis upon which these boundaries must be drawn are ethics. Ethics can be described as ‘The codes of conduct or moral principles recognized in a particular profession, sphere of activity, relationship, or other context or aspect of human life’ (Oxford English Dictionary, 2014) In particular, the teaching profession is deeply implicated in ethical concerns and considerations. (Carr, D. 2000.) Therefore, it is an issue which should be constantly at the forefront of our thinking as teachers and an awareness of ethics helps to define the boundaries between us and other professional roles. Some boundaries are not so much an issue of ethics, however, but more of practicality and there must be limits placed on what we can reasonably be expected to achieve. This could, for example, include something such as a client wishing us to condense a lesson into a shorter time to reduce the impact on their business. Whilst the motivation for this may be understandable, it could also be perceived to undermine the value of the lesson itself, or at the very least will have an effect on the quality of the teaching. Recognising this kind of boundary enables us to ensure the integrity of our aims as teachers. Oxford English Dictionary (2014) Available online at: http://www.oed.com/ Accessed 4/12/14. Carr, D. (2000). ‘Professionalism and ethics in teaching’.London: Routledge Describe Points of Referral To Meet The Individual Needs Of Learners The teacher/student relationship is a unique one and often provides opportunities to unearth or identify needs which have previously been unnoticed. These needs may be specific to helping someone become a more effective learner, (such as possible dyslexia) or could be a wider issue in terms of being affecting the individual students’ life beyond the classroom. These wider-reaching needs could be in any area of a persons’ life and broadly speaking, fall into one of 5 categories as identified by Maslow (1943): Our role in providing support to help a student meet the identified need will depend on the particular need itself. For example, a student who is  apparently lacking in one of the ‘upper needs’ such as self-esteem may benefit from more support, praise and encouragement. Some needs, however, will require external or third party input and this is where we may seek to access a point of referral. It may become clear to us in the process of teaching that a student is suffering a crisis affecting their overall wellbeing: Domestic abuse, homelessness, drug or alcohol misuse etc. In this instance, we can play an important role in referring someone to a service or organization who can provide assistance. So as to be sure that we are not misguided, the student themselves should be engaged initially and when help is offered, it can be simply through providing information, or if consent is given, we may choose to act as an advocate. Maslow, A.H (1943). ‘A Theory of Human Motivation’. Psychological Review (50)p.370-396.

Drug Testing for Welfare Recipients Essay Example for Free

Drug Testing for Welfare Recipients Essay I think that this is an effective thesis statement because it clearly outlines my paper and it states what side of this discussion I have chosen to represent. It is stated clear, concise, and to the point. Because mandatory drug testing for welfare recipients is an issue that is not in full effect, it may be difficult to find opinions from â€Å"reliable† sources concerning such legislation. It may also be difficult to determine long term effects of such a program like cuts in spending and reductions in drug abuse. I will be researching government websites both nationally and locally. I would also like to contact local government representatives to perhaps get an opinion about the idea of said legislation. In addition, because this is such a new topic, there are many newspapers to research that will have the latest on states that want to begin developing the idea of mandatory drug testing. It will be difficult to avoid logical fallicies on this topic. Because I am coming down on one side of this discussion and want to persuade my audience, I will want to use comments and information from those that view it as I do. Using statistics that are deemed factual will help in showing that these are not just biased opinions from politicians that are simply looking for another vote. If I were to begin to persuade a city council meeting or write a letter to my local government representatives about the importance of mandatory drug testing for welfare recipients, I would begin by saying: Welfare is not an entitlement! It was never intended to be as such. When President Roosevelt enacted the Social Security Act in 1935, it was during the great depression, when 25% of Americans were unemployed. Since then welfare has generously extended its hand to millions of Americans (2012). When someone is benefitting from these programs, and is not deemed disabled, it should be viewed as a â€Å"hand up† not a â€Å"hand out†. It is an issue all over the country that welfare is being abused by its benefactors. Cards are being used for ATM withdrawals, to purchase liquor, buying cigarettes, and even gambling in casinos. Food stamps are being openly traded for drugs (Camden, 2011). Not to mention the deception that is occurring about how many dependents a recipient is responsible for. To be subjected to a simple urine test to receive money and benefits from the U. S, government is not too much to bear. It is no different than obliging to mandatory drug testing for a job. Florida state governor Rick Scott has stated that in his state alone they will save 9 million dollars a year because of benefits being cut due to mandatory drug testing. With these kinds of cuts in spending nationwide, it is sure to reduce government spending a great deal. Not to mention the effect it will have on drug abusers. Florida state governor Rick Scott has implemented drug counseling on a volunteer basis for those benefactors that test positive (Delaney, 2011). Cuts in spending, responsible distribution of benefits and reductions in drug abuse, this sounds like a win-win scenario for us all. References Author Unknown, (2012), The History of Welfare, Retrieved from: http://www. elfareinfo. org/history/ Delaney, A. , (2011, November 27). Rick Scott Backs Drug Tests for Welfare Beneficiaries, Public Worker, and Himself, Retrieved from: http://www. huffingtonpost. com/2011/09/27drug-testing-welfare-_n_983235-. html/ Camden, J. , (2011, February 04). The Spokesman-Review, Abuse of Welfare Electronic Benefits Transfer Cards Targeted, Retrieved from: http://www. spokesman. com/stories/2011/feb/04/abuse-of-welfare-electronic-benefits-transfer/

Human Remains Curatorship: Ethical or Academic?

Human Remains Curatorship: Ethical or Academic? Abstract Biological objections are always easily evoked the public concern of ethical issue, especially in human remains. And therefore, museum professionals should treat human remains differently and carefully in curation. The public awareness of ethics is changing from time to time. In the past, audiences did not response the concerns of human remains’ that are exhibited in museums, either with the human bones or an open coffin of Egyptian mummies. In 1998, there was no public comment was made for displaying the human remains of a medieval mother and child in Museum of London, and no one disagreed that a museum curator displays human remains in a glass case would had a problem or would be invidious (Swain, 2002). So how do the museum professionals handle human remains exhibitions? Controversial topic of human remains display in UK museums The collections of human remains in museums were becoming sensitive topics over the last thirty years beginning from Western countries (Jenkins, 2003). Museums in Australia and the North America began to response to the repatriation demands about a decade ago, which was given a pressure in the UK or any other western countries to debate this topic sincerely (Appleton, 2002). The focus of ethical concern on human remains is mainly associated with indigenous groups and social changes (Jenkins, 2011). London Bodies exhibition The Museum of London performed London Bodies exhibition in October 1998 to February 1999 (Swain, 2002). The aim of this exhibition was tracing the change of appearance of Londoners since prehistoric times by presented archaeological evidence from human skeletal remains which was drawn upon a very large collection about 18,000 human skeletons (Swain, 2002). The design of London Bodies exhibition was involved a diverse team of specialists including osteologists, curators, designers, press, PR staff and conservators, and also a team of external consultants (Swain, 2002). The exhibition team took careful decisions on how to balance the respect for the human remains and the motivations for the exhibition as well as the display approach (Curtis, 2003). The team put up three very clear warnings outside to ensure people noticed the warning before entering to the exhibition and did not allow children and school parties went into the exhibition without accompanying adults (Swain, 2002). Swain quoted a viewpoint from Parker Pearson’s paper â€Å"Ethics and the dead in British archaeology† that British responses to dead bodies are ambivalent, contradictory and inconsistent and is related to the way how the human remains are treated (Swain, 2002). Swain mentioned the views of London Bodies were conflict. Some of the views from university archaeologists were negative who had have experience of working in North America or Australia where the cultural background of native people believe the disturbance of the dead is unacceptable and unethical (Swain, 2002) but Swain argued that people should not just follow a single set of standards for all human remains display with different cultural background (Swain, 2002). The visitor comments of London Bodies were mostly positive which was given a supporting figure to show that London society did not have a big problem with the display of human remains in an exhibition (Curtis, 2003). The Lindow Man exhibition at Manchester Museum A 2,000 year old man at Lindow Moss near Wilmslow, Manchester, UK was discovered in 1984 who had suffered a violent death (Sitch, 2008). This discovery was provided precious evidence to archaeologists and forensic scientists about the life of people during the late Iron Age and early Roman period (Sitch, 2008). The recent exhibition of Lindow Man a Bog Body Mystery in The Manchester Museum was exhibited in April 2008 to April 2009. This was not the first time exhibition of Lindow Man at The Manchester Museum. Therefore, eight specially-selected contributors proposed new interpretations of Lindow Man in order to explore different meanings to different people (Sitch, 2008). The museum adopted a polyvocal approach aiming to increase sensitivity towards human remains within society more generally by putting alongside of a selection of some the finest Iron Age artefacts and personal items from the British Museum and the Manchester Museum collections, as well as speaker’s testimony from interviews. (Sitch, 2008). However, the polyvocal approach of displaying Lindow Man was aroused unexpected controversy (Sitch, 2008). Some visitors were confused by the polyvocal approach, they did not understand what the museum wanted to express and some visitors were disappointed of the innovative design and expressed that the innovative design was an insult to the ancient dead body (Sitch, 2008). Stich concluded the experience of Lindow Man a Bog Body Mystery exhibition has brought some important lessons to the museum that is good for future reference on how to curate human remains. Importance of public consultation and design review at the development process should be involved in planning an exhibition of human remains even though the academic response of this exhibition was widely favorable (Sitch, 2008). Commercial human body exhibitions Apart from the museum exhibitions of human remains, there is commercial human body exhibitions were emerged since the late 1990s. The original and famous human body exhibition is Body Worlds. Body Worlds is the original commercial travelling exhibitions of real human bodies round the world which is formed by a German anatomist Gunther von Hagens. Gunther von Hagnes claimed that the primary mission of Body Worlds exhibition is health education, leading public audiences to have a better understanding of their bodies and awareness of better health (Institute for Plastination, 2006-2014). With displaying a numbers of real human specimens by his own preservation technique called plastination, including whole-body plastinates as well as individual organs, organ systems and transparent body slices in every single exhibition (Institute for Plastination, 2006-2014). In addition to displaying body plastinates and organs, Body Worlds exhibition does also present some usual health information in an easily understood manner such as displaying healthy and unhealthy organs side by side for audiences to observe the difference (Institute for Plastination, 2006-2014). They show a smoker lung alongside with a non-smoker lung to show the difference between two organs in order to passing a message of healthy life. They also demonstrate the structure of artificial knee and hip joints to let the audiences to observe their function (Institute for Plastination, 2006-2014). Art or Science? Unlikely traditional human remains exhibitions in museums, the presentation of body plastinates in Body Worlds is diversified, in between art and science. The plastinated exhibits not only to show the structure of human body through various forms of anatomical presentation, from exhibiting whole-body plasinates to organs specimen in glass cases and body slices, but also make use of resilience of plastinated bodies to show the different posture of human activities such as dancing, runningetc. and also mimic some classical pose in famous movie such as Titanic Couple. Admittedly, the presentation of plastinated bodies in â€Å"artistic† way can reduce the fear of real human dead bodies displaying in front of the public and strengthen the interaction of the audiences and plastinated specimens, but also lead audiences generate an illusion that the specimen in the Body Worlds exhibition are kinds of art. I criticise the presentation approach of Body Worlds is contradicted to the primary mission of the exhibition which emphasizes health education and science. Referring to the visitor comments from Body Worlds official websites and other public discussion boards, the visitor comments of Body Worlds are two poles but more on positive side. Positive comments are mostly focus on the displaying approach of specimens which is amazing art but do not get much information on health, while negative comments are concerning human bodies are commercialized and are not be respected. In 2011, Body Worlds the Cycle of Life was held in National Taiwan Science Education Center Museum Exhibitions. The aim of this exhibition was â€Å"educate the public about the beauty and fragility of the body, while The Cycle of Life focuses on the process of aging† (Lin, 2011). However, some Taiwanese scholars argued that the whole presentation is an art, public cannot learn anything about human body or receive any health messages from this exhibition, only with very simple explanation text on each specimen. â€Å"It is not a science education†¦..they emphasize education is just for hyping topic for earning admission fees by attracting more visitors† commented by a Taiwanese professor of Medicine who was involved in Body Worlds Taipei exhibition in 2011 (Kuo, 2012). Another issue that was debated before the grand opening of Body Worlds the Cycle of Life at Taipei in 2011 was the two sets of sexual plastinated specimens, which were planning to be displayed in the show. These two sets of sexual plastinated specimens were sparked controversy (Kuo, 2012). The debate was polarized, the supporting side argued that the exhibition is prohibited for age under 18 entry so there is no harm for displaying something about sex; the opponents refuted is the sexual display is only a gimmick and questioned is there something inside so called â€Å"education† of the sexual display? At the end of the discussion, the two sets of sexual plastinated specimens finally did not present in the exhibition (Kuo, 2012). Photo 1) a plastinated exhibit in Body Worlds the Cycle of Life, Taipei, 2011 The photo is downloaded from National Taiwan Science Education Center official website The founder of Body Worlds, Gunther von Hagens, who was born in East German and was in two years imprisonment by East German authorities for political reasons (Institute for Plastination, 2006-2014). His identity evokes the public sensible emotion of which to connect the horrible human experiments at East German in WWII (Kuo, 2012). Moreover, a rumor about the source of plastinated bodies aroused suspicion and controversy. Question of bodies’ source? There was a pregnant woman plastinated body exhibited in the show of Body Worlds the Cycle of Life in Asia. This plastinated specimen touched off a rumor in China regarding to the political struggle in Communist Party of China. This rumor also raised up a concern on human corpse source in human body shows around the world. Photo 2) Chinese pregnant woman at Body Worlds The photo is downloaded from http://bodyworldspictures.blogspot.hk/ The Chinese public suspected the young pregnant woman plastinated exhibit with mature fetus in the current Body Worlds show might belong to Zhang Weijie, a former mistress of the disgraced politician Bo Xilai who went missing (Staff Reporter , 2012). Zhang Weijie was a well-known news reporter of Dalian Television. People pointed out that the skull shape of pregnant woman exhibit looks like Zhang and the near mature embryo inside the body is not possible to be the result of an abortion (Staff Reporter , 2012). Some suspect that Gunther von Hagens had a special connection with Bo Xilai and therefore his had been set up his largest human body plastination factory in Dalian because Dalian government does not have any laws against the processing and exporting of corpses when Von Hagens was keeping a special relationship with the mayor of Dalian, Bo Xilai (Staff Reporter , 2012). There is another rumor that Dalian factory has been closed down since Bo Xilai has experienced his dramatic downfall in 2013. à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ In 2008, ABC news reported a secret trade in Chines bodies which rose up a concern on the source of Chinese bodies was come from executed prisoners without consent (Ross, Brian; Schwartz, Rhonda; Schecter, Anna;, 2008). In an interview on the ABC News program 20/20† with Von Hagnes, he dined all accusation and claimed that all Chinese bodies were given to him by a medical school in China to plastinate for teaching models and he emphasized in the interview all Chinese bodies have never put on public display and the bodies from overseas were given by donors (Ross, Brian; Schwartz, Rhonda; Schecter, Anna;, 2008). Public concerns on ethical issues Other than the controversy of the source of fresh corpses, the human â€Å"artwork† in Body Worlds triggers a different moral stance on social and personal disputes. The dynamic expressions and body vocabulary, death seems to have become lyrical and poetic. The moral nature of death is expelled by art expressions triggers a discussion of human body whether or not should be treated in this way. Under the aura of health education in science and aesthetics, it is filled with the smell of commerce with rendering promotional strategy (Kuo, 2012). Referring to Body Worlds official website, human plastinated specimens are available on purchase (Institute for Plastination, 2006-2014). Although the company emphasizes the trade is only limited to â€Å"qualified users†, this activity commercialise human specimens which are claimed to be collected by donors. Is this commercial trading activity has betrayed the original intention of donors? Although the exhibitions of plastinated bodies are controversial, a numbers of companies have been involved in the hugely profitable shows since the late 1990s (Schwatrz, 2010). Conclusion â€Å"Human remains can reveal information about historic patterns of migration, lifestyle and disease† said by Tiffany Jenkins (Jenkins, 2003). Issues concerning the legally state of body sources and ethical controversy about the use of human remains for public exhibitions have been emerged in museums, cultural authorities and commercial exhibition companies. Museums should take into consideration of different factors such as design, interpretation, management, knowledge and morality when planning new exhibitions regarding human remains. Public response to human remains exhibitions was mixed. Comparing to the case study of The London Bodies in The Museum of London and Lindow Man in The Museum of Manchester, museum audiences tend to accept the traditional approach of exhibiting human remains which is solemn, respectful, carefully treated and imitate the traditional burial mode. Conversely, museum audiences, especially those conservative visitors, dislike innovative approach exhibition of human remains. Innovative is easily to connected to dishonor, disgrace, affront and unethical. However, the interesting point from above stories is that visitors did not feel more antipathetic to Body Worlds exhibitions that allowed audiences to have a close contact with plastinated human remains which are made by fresh corpses, than The London Bodies exhibition in The Museum of London and Lindow Man exhibition with polyvocal approach in The Manchester museum. Although most people expect to see human remains in museums, with changing attitudes towards human remains in society, museum professionals need to re-examine the display and treatment of human remains (Jenkins, 2011). However, the dividing line between acceptance and unacceptance is difficult to define. This is a struggle between public morals and academic studies. Jenkins argued that it is very dangerous if the dividing line is inclined towards the moral side, since human remains provide valuable material memory of past people and past times regarding human evidence, and benefit for today society such as informing changes in dental, surgical and medical practice (Jenkins, 2003). On the other hand, if we only emphasis on academic studies or education without considering ethical issues, such as the concern of the commercialise issue of human remains in Body Worlds, it will be dangerous too. Whatever the dividing line is inclined on either one side could result a profound impact. Therefore, balancing ethical concerns and academic studies may be a key for curating human remains. But what is an appropriate exhibition of human remains? There is no certain answer as the public reaction is emotional and is changed by social values. This question would always be haunted museum curators. Bibliography Anon., 2011. Dr. Gunther von Hagens, Body Plastination at Body Worlds.. [Online] Available at: http://bodyworldspictures.blogspot.hk/ [Accessed 23 3 2014]. Anon., 2011. National Taiwan Science Education Center. [Online] Available at: http://www.ntsec.gov.tw/User/Article.aspx?a=852 [Accessed 24 3 2014]. Appleton, J., 2002. Spiked Culture. [Online] Available at: www.spiked-online.com/Articles/00000006DB8A.htm [Accessed 15 3 2014]. Curtis, N., 2003. Human remains: the sacred, museums and archaeology. Public Archaeology Vol. 3, pp. 21-32. Institute for Plastination, 2006-2014. Body Worlds. [Online] Available at: http://www.bodyworlds.com/en.html [Accessed 22 3 2014]. Jenkins, T., 2003. Burying the evidence. [Online] Available at: http://www.spiked-online.com/Articles/00000006DFDE.htm [Accessed 15 3 2014]. Jenkins, T., 2011. Contesting Human Remains in Museum Collections: the contribution of a crisis of cultural authority. [Online] Available at: http://www.materialworldblog.com/?s=contesting+human+remains+in+museum+collections [Accessed 13 3 2014]. Kuo, J.-K., 2012. Corporality and Boundary-work: Museum Exhibitions of Real Human Bodies in Taiwan. Taiwan Museology Quarterly Vol. 26(3), 19 7, pp. 7-20. Lin, K., 2011. Highlight: Body Worlds The Cycle of Life. [Online] Available at: http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2011/07/01/2003507115 [Accessed 22 3 2014]. Ross, Brian; Schwartz, Rhonda; Schecter, Anna;, 2008. Exclusive: Secret Trade in Chinese Bodies. [Online] Available at: http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/exclusive-secret-trade-chinese-bodies/story?id=4291334 [Accessed 22 3 2014]. Sitch, B., 2008. Courting controversy the Lindow Man exhibition at the Manchester Museum. UMAC Journal, 16th-20th 9. Staff Reporter , 2012. Netizens suggest Bo Xilais former mistress on display in Body Worlds. [Online] Available at: http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?id=20120819000054cid=1101 [Accessed 23 3 2014]. Swain, H., 2002. The ethics of displaying human remains from British archaeological sites. Public Archaeology Vol. 2 , pp. 95-100. 1

Drugs Essay -- essays papers

Drugs An issue of personal, local, and national concern that I would like to focus in this essay is drugs. There are many reasons why I find drugs to be an issue of great importance to me. First, drugs is a personal issue to me. For most of my life, I have been living in places where drugs have surrounded me. For the past ten years, I have been living in the Duncan Projects in Jersey City, where the temptation of selling, buying, or even using drugs seems to be growing every day. Every day I see older people and even young kids engaging in the act of buying, selling, and using drugs. I ask myself why do people get involved in drugs; is it because of a financial need? Sometimes people believe that having a lot of money makes them a success, but they are wrong. People also be...

Importance of the Meteor in Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter :: Scarlet Letter essays

The Importance of the Meteor in The Scarlet Letter      Ã‚   Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel, The Scarlet Letter, is considered by many to be a masterpiece. It was a culmination of everything Hawthorne experienced in his life. He grew up in a household that held fast to Puritan ideals. This affected him in ways he himself may not have even realized.   â€Å"Nathaniel Hawthorne placed many undercurrents of meaning in this novel†(Tucker 16). At the climax of the story, a meteor flashes through the night sky. The appearance of this meteor at this particular moment in time contributes to the plot in many ways.    First, Reverend Dimsdale thinks the meteor is a message from God specifically for him. "Nothing was more common in those days than to interpret all meteoric appearances, and other natural phenomena that occurred with less regularity than the rise and set of the sun and moon, as so many revelations from a supernatural source"(149). Any person of that day would have assumed that something of that nature applied to some portion of his or her life. "Then, and there, before the judgment seat, thy mother, and thou, and I, must stand together. But the daylight of this world shall not see our meeting"(149)! Just after those words leave Reverend Dimsdale's mouth, the meteor lights up the sky as bright as day. It's as if God is proving Reverend Dimsdale's words to be false. The light of the meteor resembles the letter "A" to Reverend Dimsdale because his conscience is pricking at him. Subconsciencely he wants to punish himself for his sin since the townspeople can't punish him for a sin of whi ch they were unaware. Therefore, his guilty feelings twist a natural part of creation into a punishment of sorts. He believed the meteor resembled the letter "A" to convict him further of his sinfulness. "...a great red letter in the sky-the letter 'A' which we interpret to stand for 'Angel.' For, as our good Governor Winthrop was made an angel this past night, it was doubtless held fit that there should be some notice thereof"(153). The fact that a member of his congregation also believes that the meteor resembles the letter "A" is ironic because of his belief that it stands for "Angel" in honor of the departed governor rather than something with a negative connotation. The mind can make one event appear as something to one person while another person observing the same event will consider it the complete opposite of the first.

William Cullen Bryant Examines Nature :: Biography Biographies Essays

William Cullen Bryant Examines Nature William Cullen Bryant can very easily be linked to the Transcendentalists. Most of his themes in his writings are concerning the nature of life and the nature of nature. "The Yellow Violet" is an example of a poem about the nature of life. "The Prairies," on the other hand, is an example of the nature of nature. Though these two poems of Bryant's are both about the beautiful world of trees, flowers, and fields, they take on a different perspective of nature itself. "The Yellow Violet" vividly expresses the nature of life in a very simple way. Bryant takes the cycle of a yellow violet and uses it to describe the humanistic world around him. It is very clever, too, that when he does this, he uses personification. A "modest flower" (2674) pops out from the dark, damp leaves below and "[makes] the woods of April bright" (2675). While the rest of the forests and fields go on with their life cycle this tiny flower does itsà ­ best to make things pretty and happy. The persona describes this sight as an "early smile" (2675) and that is what kept a smile on his own face. Even the various blooms and colors that surface in May are not as joyful because when the violet blooms, it is the first color you see after a long winter of gray. This modesty of the meek flower is compared to that of a person. It's usually the poorer, less known people in the world that are the ones who really cheer you up. They will never let you down. As the persona in t he poem points out, "So they, who climb to wealth, forget" (2675). This is the most important line of the entire poem. It is basically saying that those who are wrapped up in material things are just th...wrapped up. They are not dependable. Thus, the yellow violet is the modest person, which are far and few, who you can always count on to stand by you in the end and brighten up your day. This is the illustration of the nature of life. "The Prairies," however, takes on a little bit of a different perspective. Instead of using nature as a morality lesson, "The Prairies" is more of an account of the way of nature.

Keynesian Economics

Keynesian economics is the view that in the short run, especially during recessions, economic output is strongly influenced by aggregate demand . In the Keynesian view, aggregate demand does not necessarily equal the productive capacity of the economy; instead, it is influenced by a host of factors and sometimes behaves erratically, affecting production, employment, and inflation The theories forming the basis of Keynesian economics were first presented by the British economist John Maynard Keynes in his book, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, published in 1936, during the Great Depression.Keynes contrasted his approach to the aggregate supply-focused ‘classical' economics that preceded his book. The interpretations of Keynes that followed are contentious and several schools of economic thought claim his legacy. Keynesian economists often argue that private sector decisions sometimes lead to inefficient macroeconomic outcomes which require active policy resp onses by the public sector, in particular, monetary policy actions by the central bank and fiscal policy actions by the government, in order to stabilize output over the business cycle.Keynesian economics advocates a mixed economy – predominantly private sector, but with a role for government intervention during recessions. Keynesian economics served as the standard economic model in the developed nations during the later part of the Great Depression, World War II, and the post-war economic expansion (1945–1973), though it lost some influence following the oil shock and resulting stagflation of the 1970s. The advent of the global financial crisis in 2008 has caused a resurgence in Keynesian thought. OverviewPrior to the publication of Keynes's General Theory, mainstream economic thought was that the economy existed in a state of general equilibrium, meaning that the economy naturally consumes whatever it produces because the needs of consumers are always greater than t he capacity of the economy to satisfy those needs. This perception is reflected in Say's Law and in the writing of David Ricardo which is that individuals produce so that they can either consume what they have manufactured or sell their output so that they can buy someone else's output.This perception rests upon the assumption that if a surplus of goods or services exists, they would naturally drop in price to the point where they would be consumed. Keynes's theory was significant because it overturned the mainstream thought of the time and brought about a greater awareness that problems such as unemployment are not a product of laziness, but the result of a structural inadequacy in the economic system. He argued that because there was no guarantee that the goods that individuals produce would be met with demand, unemployment was a natural consequence.He saw the economy as unable to maintain itself at full employment and believed that it was necessary for the government to step in a nd put under-utilised savings to work through government spending. Thus, according to Keynesian theory, some individually rational microeconomic-level actions such as not investing savings in the goods and services produced by the economy, if taken collectively by a large proportion of individuals and firms, can lead to outcomes wherein the economy operates below its potential output and growth rate.Prior to Keynes, a situation in which aggregate demand for goods and services did not meet supply was referred to by classical economists as a general glut, although there was disagreement among them as to whether a general glut was possible. Keynes argued that when a glut occurred, it was the over-reaction of producers and the laying off of workers that led to a fall in demand and perpetuated the problem. Keynesians therefore advocate an active stabilization policy to reduce the amplitude of the business cycle, which they rank among the most serious of economic problems.According to the theory, government spending can be used to increase aggregate demand, thus increasing economic activity, reducing unemployment and deflation. Theory Keynes argued that the solution to the Great Depression was to stimulate the economy (â€Å"inducement to invest†) through some combination of two approaches: 1. A reduction in interest rates (monetary policy), and 2. Government investment in infrastructure (fiscal policy). By reducing the interest rate at which the central bank lends money to commercial banks, the government sends a signal to commercial banks that they should do the same for their customers.Investment by government in infrastructure injects income into the economy by creating business opportunity, employment and demand and reversing the effects of the aforementioned imbalance. Governments source the funding for this expenditure by borrowing funds from the economy through the issue of government bonds, and because government spending exceeds the amount of tax in come that the government receives, this creates a fiscal deficit. A central conclusion of Keynesian economics is that, in some situations, no strong automatic mechanism moves output and employment towards full employment levels.This conclusion conflicts with economic approaches that assume a strong general tendency towards equilibrium. In the ‘neoclassical synthesis', which combines Keynesian macro concepts with a micro foundation, the conditions of general equilibrium allow for price adjustment to eventually achieve this goal. More broadly, Keynes saw his theory as a general theory, in which utilization of resources could be high or low, whereas previous economics focused on the particular case of full utilization.The new classical macroeconomics movement, which began in the late 1960s and early 1970s, criticized Keynesian theories, while New Keynesian economics has sought to base Keynes's ideas on more rigorous theoretical foundations. Some interpretations of Keynes have emp hasized his stress on the international coordination of Keynesian policies, the need for international economic institutions, and the ways in which economic forces could lead to war or could promote peace. Concept Wages and spending During the Great Depression, the classical theory attributed mass unemployment to high and rigid real wages.To Keynes, the determination of wages is more complicated. First, he argued that it is not real but nominal wages that are set in negotiations between employers and workers, as opposed to a barter relationship. Second, nominal wage cuts would be difficult to put into effect because of laws and wage contracts. Even classical economists admitted that these exist; unlike Keynes, they advocated abolishing minimum wages, unions, and long-term contracts, increasing labour market flexibility. However, to Keynes, people will resist nominal wage reductions, even without unions, until they see other wages falling and a general fall of prices.Keynes rejected the idea that cutting wages would cure recessions. He examined the explanations for this idea and found them all faulty. He also considered the most likely consequences of cutting wages in recessions, under various different circumstances. He concluded that such wage cutting would be more likely to make recessions worse rather than better. Further, if wages and prices were falling, people would start to expect them to fall. This could make the economy spiral downward as those who had money would simply wait as falling prices made it more valuable – rather than spending.As Irving Fisher argued in 1933, in his Debt-Deflation Theory of Great Depressions, deflation (falling prices) can make a depression deeper as falling prices and wages made pre-existing nominal debts more valuable in real terms. Excessive saving To Keynes, excessive saving, i. e. saving beyond planned investment, was a serious problem, encouraging recession or even depression. Excessive saving results if invest ment falls, perhaps due to falling consumer demand, over-investment in earlier years, or pessimistic business expectations, and if saving does not immediately fall in step, the economy would decline.The classical economists argued that interest rates would fall due to the excess supply of â€Å"loanable funds†. The first diagram, adapted from the only graph in The General Theory, shows this process. (For simplicity, other sources of the demand for or supply of funds are ignored here. ) Assume that fixed investment in capital goods falls from â€Å"old I† to â€Å"new I† (step a). Second (step b), the resulting excess of saving causes interest-rate cuts, abolishing the excess supply: so again we have saving (S) equal to investment. The interest-rate (i) fall prevents that of production and employment.Keynes had a complex argument against this laissez-faire response. The graph below summarizes his argument, assuming again that fixed investment falls (step A). Firs t, saving does not fall much as interest rates fall, since the income and substitution effectsof falling rates go in conflicting directions. Second, since planned fixed investment in plant and equipment is based mostly on long-term expectations of future profitability, that spending does not rise much as interest rates fall. So S and I are drawn as steep (inelastic) in the graph.Given the inelasticity of both demand and supply, a large interest-rate fall is needed to close the saving/investment gap. As drawn, this requires a negative interest rate at equilibrium (where the new I line would intersect the old S line). However, this negative interest rate is not necessary to Keynes's argument. Third, Keynes argued that saving and investment are not the main determinants of interest rates, especially in the short run. Instead, the supply of and the demand for the stock of money determine interest rates in the short run. (This is not drawn in the graph.)Neither changes quickly in respons e to excessive saving to allow fast interest-rate adjustment. Finally, Keynes suggested that, because of fear of capital losses on assets besides money, there may be a â€Å"liquidity trap† setting a floor under which interest rates cannot fall. While in this trap, interest rates are so low that any increase in money supply will cause bond-holders (fearing rises in interest rates and hence capital losses on their bonds) to sell their bonds to attain money (liquidity). In the diagram, the equilibrium suggested by the new I line and the old S line cannot be reached, so that excess saving persists.Some (such as Paul Krugman) see this latter kind of liquidity trap as prevailing in Japan in the 1990s. Most economists agree that nominal interest rates cannot fall below zero. However, some economists (particularly those from the Chicago school) reject the existence of a liquidity trap. Even if the liquidity trap does not exist, there is a fourth (perhaps most important) element to K eynes's critique. Saving involves not spending all of one's income. Thus, it means insufficient demand for business output, unless it is balanced by other sources of demand, such as fixed investment.Therefore, excessive saving corresponds to an unwanted accumulation of inventories, or what classical economists called a general glut. [ This pile-up of unsold goods and materials encourages businesses to decrease both production and employment. This in turn lowers people's incomes – and saving, causing a leftward shift in the S line in the diagram (step B). For Keynes, the fall in income did most of the job by ending excessive saving and allowing the loanable funds market to attain equilibrium. Instead of interest-rate adjustment solving the problem, a recession does so.Thus in the diagram, the interest-rate change is small. Whereas the classical economists assumed that the level of output and income was constant and given at any one time (except for short-lived deviations), Key nes saw this as the key variable that adjusted to equate saving and investment. Finally, a recession undermines the business incentive to engage in fixed investment. With falling incomes and demand for products, the desired demand for factories and equipment (not to mention housing) will fall. This accelerator effect would shift the I line to the left again, a change not shown in the diagram above.This recreates the problem of excessive saving and encourages the recession to continue. In sum, to Keynes there is interaction between excess supplies in different markets, as unemployment in labour markets encourages excessive saving – and vice-versa. Rather than prices adjusting to attain equilibrium, the main story is one of quantity adjustment allowing recessions and possible attainment of underemployment equilibrium. Active fiscal policy Classical economists have traditionally yearned for balanced government budgets.Keynesians, on the other hand, believe this would exacerbate the underlying problem: following either the expansionary policy or the contractionary policy would raise saving (broadly defined) and thus lower the demand for both products and labour. For example, Keynesians would advise tax cuts instead. [10] Keynes's ideas influenced Franklin D. Roosevelt's view that insufficient buying-power caused the Depression. During his presidency, Roosevelt adopted some aspects of Keynesian economics, especially after 1937, when, in the depths of the Depression, the United States suffered from recession yet again following fiscal contraction.But to many the true success of Keynesian policy can be seen at the onset of World War II, which provided a kick to the world economy, removed uncertainty, and forced the rebuilding of destroyed capital. Keynesian ideas became almost official in social-democratic Europe after the war and in the U. S. in the 1960s. Keynes developed a theory which suggested that active government policy could be effective in managing t he economy.Rather than seeing unbalanced government budgets as wrong, Keynes advocated what has been called countercyclical fiscal policies, that is, policies that acted against the tide of the business cycle: deficit spending when a nation's economy suffers from recessionor when recovery is long-delayed and unemployment is persistently high – and the suppression of inflation in boom times by either increasing taxes or cutting back on government outlays. He argued that governments should solve problems in the short run rather than waiting for market forces to do it in the long run, because, â€Å"in the long run, we are all dead.†This contrasted with the classical and neoclassical economic analysis of fiscal policy. Fiscal stimulus could actuate production. But, to these schools, there was no reason to believe that this stimulation would outrun the side-effects that â€Å"crowd out† private investment: first, it would increase the demand for labour and raise wag es, hurting profitability; Second, a government deficit increases the stock of government bonds, reducing their market price and encouraging high interest rates, making it more expensive for business to finance fixed investment.Thus, efforts to stimulate the economy would be self-defeating. The Keynesian response is that such fiscal policy is appropriate only when unemployment is persistently high, above the non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment (NAIRU). In that case, crowding out is minimal. Further, private investment can be â€Å"crowded in†: Fiscal stimulus raises the market for business output, raising cash flow and profitability, spurring business optimism. To Keynes, this accelerator effect meant that government and business could be complements rather than substitutes in this situation.Second, as the stimulus occurs, gross domestic product rises, raising the amount of saving, helping to finance the increase in fixed investment. Finally, government outlays ne ed not always be wasteful: government investment in public goods that will not be provided by profit-seekers will encourage the private sector's growth. That is, government spending on such things as basic research, public health, education, and infrastructure could help the long-term growth of potential output. In Keynes's theory, there must be significant slack in the labour market before fiscal expansion is justified.Contrary to some critical characterizations of it, Keynesianism does not consist solely of deficit spending. Keynesianism recommends counter-cyclical policies. An example of a counter-cyclical policy is raising taxes to cool the economy and to prevent inflation when there is abundant demand-side growth, and engaging in deficit spending on labour-intensive infrastructure projects to stimulate employment and stabilize wages during economic downturns. Classical economics, on the other hand, argues that one should cut taxes when there are budget surpluses, and cut spendi ng – or, less likely, increase taxes – during economic downturns.Keynesian economists believe that adding to profits and incomes during boom cycles through tax cuts, and removing income and profits from the economy through cuts in spending during downturns, tends to exacerbate the negative effects of the business cycle. This effect is especially pronounced when the government controls a large fraction of the economy, as increased tax revenue may aid investment in state enterprises in downturns, and decreased state revenue and investment harm those enterprises. â€Å"Multiplier effect† and interest rates Main article: Spending multiplierTwo aspects of Keynes's model has implications for policy: First, there is the â€Å"Keynesian multiplier†, first developed by Richard F. Kahn in 1931. Exogenous increases in spending, such as an increase in government outlays, increases total spending by a multiple of that increase. A government could stimulate a great dea l of new production with a modest outlay if: 1. The people who receive this money then spend most on consumption goods and save the rest. 2. This extra spending allows businesses to hire more people and pay them, which in turn allows a further increase in consumer spending.This process continues. At each step, the increase in spending is smaller than in the previous step, so that the multiplier process tapers off and allows the attainment of an equilibrium. This story is modified and moderated if we move beyond a â€Å"closed economy† and bring in the role of taxation: The rise in imports and tax payments at each step reduces the amount of induced consumer spending and the size of the multiplier effect. Second, Keynes re-analyzed the effect of the interest rate on investment. In the classical model, the supply of funds (saving) determines the amount of fixed business investment.That is, under the classical model, since all savings are placed in banks, and all business investo rs in need of borrowed funds go to banks, the amount of savings determines the amount that is available to invest. Under Keynes's model, the amount of investment is determined independently by long-term profit expectations and, to a lesser extent, the interest rate. The latter opens the possibility of regulating the economy through money supply changes, via monetary policy. Under conditions such as the Great Depression, Keynes argued that this approach would be relatively ineffective compared to fiscal policy.But, during more â€Å"normal† times, monetary expansion can stimulate the economy. IS/LM model The IS/LM model is nearly as influential as Keynes's original analysis in determining actual policy and economics education. It relates aggregate demand and employment to three exogenousquantities, i. e. , the amount of money in circulation, the government budget, and the state of business expectations. This model was very popular with economists after World War II because it could be understood in terms of general equilibrium theory. This encouraged a much more static vision of macroeconomics than that described above.History Precursors Keynes's work was part of a long-running debate within economics over the existence and nature of general gluts. While a number of the policies Keynes advocated (the notable one being government deficit spending at times of low private investment or consumption) and the theoretical ideas he proposed (effective demand, the multiplier, the paradox of thrift) were advanced by various authors in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Keynes's unique contribution was to provide a general theory of these, which proved acceptable to the political and economic establishments.Schools See also: Underconsumption, Birmingham School (economics), and Stockholm school (economics) An intellectual precursor of Keynesian economics was underconsumption theory in classical economics, dating from such 19th-century economists as Thomas Malthus, t he Birmingham Schoolof Thomas Attwood, and the American economists William Trufant Foster and Waddill Catchings, who were influential in the 1920s and 1930s.Underconsumptionists were, like Keynes after them, concerned with failure of aggregate demand to attain potential output, calling this â€Å"under consumption† (focusing on the demand side), rather than â€Å"overproduction† (which would focus on the supply side), and advocating economic interventionism. Keynes specifically discussed under consumption (which he wrote â€Å"under-consumption†) in the General Theory, in Chapter 22, Section IV and Chapter 23, Section VII.Numerous concepts were developed earlier and independently of Keynes by the Stockholm school during the 1930s; these accomplishments were described in a 1937 article, published in response to the 1936 General Theory, sharing the Swedish discoveries. Concepts The multiplier dates to work in the 1890s by the Australian economist Alfred De Lissa, the Danish economist Julius Wulff, and the German American economist Nicholas Johannsen,[15] the latter being cited in a footnote of Keynes. [16] Nicholas Johannsen also proposed a theory of effective demand in the 1890s. The paradox of thrift was stated in 1892 by John M.Robertson in his The Fallacy of Savings, in earlier forms by mercantilist economists since the 16th century, and similar sentiments date to antiquity. [17][18] Today these ideas, regardless of provenance, are referred to in academia under the rubric of â€Å"Keynesian economics†, due to Keynes's role in consolidating, elaborating, and popularizing them. Keynes and the classicists Keynes sought to distinguish his theories from and oppose them to â€Å"classical economics,† by which he meant the economic theories of David Ricardo and his followers, including John Stuart Mill,Alfred Marshall, Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, and Arthur Cecil Pigou.A central tenet of the classical view, known as Say's law, state s that â€Å"supply creates its own demand. † Say's Law can be interpreted in two ways. First, the claim that the total value of output is equal to the sum of income earned in production is a result of a national income accounting identity, and is therefore indisputable. A second and stronger claim, however, that the â€Å"costs of output are always covered in the aggregate by the sale-proceeds resulting from demand† depends on how consumption and saving are linked to production and investment.In particular, Keynes argued that the second, strong form of Say's Law only holds if increases in individual savings exactly match an increase in aggregate investment. Keynes sought to develop a theory that would explain determinants of saving, consumption, investment and production. In that theory, the interaction of aggregate demand and aggregate supply determines the level of output and employment in the economy. Because of what he considered the failure of the â€Å"Classica l Theory† in the 1930s, Keynes firmly objects to its main theory – adjustments in prices would automatically make demand tend to the full employment level.Neo-classical theory supports that the two main costs that shift demand and supply are labour and money. Through the distribution of the monetary policy, demand and supply can be adjusted. If there were more labour than demand for it, wages would fall until hiring began again. If there were too much saving, and not enough consumption, then interest rates would fall until people either cut their savings rate or started borrowing. Postwar KeynesianismMain articles: Neo-Keynesian economics, New Keynesian economics, and Post-Keynesian economics Keynes's ideas became widely accepted after World War II, and until the early 1970s, Keynesian economics provided the main inspiration for economic policy makers in Western industrialized countries. Governments prepared high quality economic statistics on an ongoing basis and tried to base their policies on the Keynesian theory that had become the norm. In the early era of new liberalism and social democracy, most western capitalist countries enjoyed low, stable unemployment and modest inflation, an era called the Golden Age of Capitalism.In terms of policy, the twin tools of post-war Keynesian economics were fiscal policy and monetary policy. While these are credited to Keynes, others, such as economic historian David Colander, argue that they are, rather, due to the interpretation of Keynes by Abba Lerner in his theory of Functional Finance, and should instead be called â€Å"Lernerian† rather than â€Å"Keynesian†. Through the 1950s, moderate degrees of government demand leading industrial development, and use of fiscal and monetary counter-cyclical policies continued, and reached a peak in the â€Å"go go† 1960s, where it seemed to many Keynesians that prosperity was now permanent.In 1971, Republican US President Richard Nixon even pr oclaimed â€Å"I am now a Keynesian in economics. † However, with the oil shock of 1973, and the economic problems of the 1970s, modern liberal economics began to fall out of favor. During this time, many economies experienced high and rising unemployment, coupled with high and rising inflation, contradicting the Phillips curve's prediction. This stagflation meant that the simultaneous application of expansionary (anti-recession) and contractionary(anti-inflation) policies appeared to be necessary. This dilemma led to the end of the Keynesian near-consensus of the 1960s, and the rise throughout the 1970s of ideas based upon more classical analysis, including monetarism, supply-side economics, and new classical economics. At the same time, Keynesians began during the period to reorganize their thinking (some becoming associated with New Keynesian economics).One strategy, utilized also as a critique of the notably high unemployment and potentially disappointing GNP growth rates associated with the latter two theories by the mid-1980s, was to emphasize low unemployment and maximal economic growth at the cost of somewhat higher inflation (its consequences kept in check by indexing and other methods, and its overall rate kept lower and steadier by such potential policies as Martin Weitzman's share economy). [22] Multiple schools of economic thought that trace their legacy to Keynes currently exist, the notable ones being Neo-Keynesian economics, New Keynesian economics, and Post-Keynesian economics.Keynes's biographer Robert Skidelsky writes that the post-Keynesian school has remained closest to the spirit of Keynes's work in following his monetary theory and rejecting the neutrality of money. In the postwar era, Keynesian analysis was combined with neoclassical economics to produce what is generally termed the â€Å"neoclassical synthesis†, yielding Neo-Keynesian economics, which dominated mainstream macroeconomic thought. Though it was widely held t hat there was no strong automatic tendency to full employment, many believed that if government policy were used to ensure it, the economy would behave as neoclassical theory predicted.This post-war domination by Neo-Keynesian economics was broken during the stagflation of the 1970s. There was a lack of consensus among macroeconomists in the 1980s. However, the advent of New Keynesian economics in the 1990s, modified and provided microeconomic foundations for the neo-Keynesian theories. These modified models now dominate mainstream economics. Post-Keynesian economists, on the other hand, reject the neoclassical synthesis and, in general, neoclassical economics applied to the macroeconomy.Post-Keynesian economics is aheterodox school that holds that both Neo-Keynesian economics and New Keynesian economics are incorrect, and a misinterpretation of Keynes's ideas. The Post-Keynesian school encompasses a variety of perspectives, but has been far less influential than the other more main stream Keynesian schools. Relationship to other schools of economics The Keynesian schools of economics are situated alongside a number of other schools that have the same perspectives on what the economic issues are, but differ on what causes them and how to best resolve them: Stockholm SchoolThe Stockholm School rose to prominence at about the same time that Keynes published his General Theory and shared a common concern in business cycles and unemployment. The second generation of Swedish economists also advocated government intervention through spending during economic downturns although opinions are divided over whether they conceived the essence of Keynes's theory before he did. Monetarism There was debate between Monetarists and Keynesians in the 1960s over the role of government in stabilizing the economy.Both Monetarists and Keynesians are in agreement over the fact that issues such as business cycles, unemployment, inflation are caused by inadequate demand, and need to be addressed, but they had fundamentally different perspectives on the capacity of the economy to find its own equilibrium and as a consequence the degree of government intervention that is required to create equilibrium. Keynesians emphasized the use of discretionary fiscal policy and monetary policy, while monetarists argued the primacy of monetary policy, and that it should be rules-based The debate was largely resolved in the 1980s.Since then, economists have largely agreed that central banks should bear the primary responsibility for stabilizing the economy, and that monetary policy should largely follow the Taylor rule – which many economists credit with the Great Moderation. The Global Financial Crisis, however, has convinced many economists and governments of the need for fiscal interventions and highlighted the difficulty in stimulating economies through monetary policy alone during a liquidity trap. Criticisms Austrian School criticisms Austrian economist Friedrich Hay ek disagreed with some of Keynes' views.Journalist and Austrian publicist Henry Hazlitt, wrote a detailed criticism of Keynes's General Theory in The Failure of the New Economics. James M. Buchanan and Richard E. Wagner James M. Buchanan and Richard E. Wagner, writing Democracy in Deficit: The Political Legacy of Lord Keynes and â€Å"The Consequences of Mr. Keynes† with John Burton, criticize Keynesian economics. According to them, The implicit assumption underlying the Keynesian fiscal revolution was that economic policy would be made by wise men, acting without regard to political pressures or opportunities, and guided by disinterested economic technocrats.They insisted that the fundamental flaw of Keynesian economics was the unrealistic assumption about political, bureaucratic and electoral behavior. Some economists such as James Tobin and Robert Barro commented about the thesis. They replied these comments New Classical Macroeconomics criticisms Another influential schoo l of thought was based on the Lucas critique of Keynesian economics. This called for greater consistency with microeconomic theory and rationality, and in particular emphasized the idea of rational expectations.Lucas and others argued that Keynesian economics required remarkably foolish and short-sighted behavior from people, which totally contradicted the economic understanding of their behavior at a micro level. New classical economics introduced a set of macroeconomic theories that were based on optimising microeconomic behavior. These models have been developed into the Real Business Cycle Theory, which argues that business cycle fluctuations can to a large extent be accounted for by real (in contrast to nominal) shocks.Beginning in the late 1950s new classical macroeconomists began to disagree with the methodology employed by Keynes and his successors. Keynesians emphasized the dependence of consumption on disposable income and, also, of investment on current profits and curren t cash flow. In addition, Keynesians posited a Phillips curve that tied nominal wage inflation to unemployment rate. To support these theories, Keynesians typically traced the logical foundations of their model (using introspection) and supported their assumptions with statistical evidence.New classical theorists demanded that macroeconomics be grounded  on the same foundations as microeconomic theory, profit-maximizing firms and rational, utility-maximizing consumers The result of this shift in methodology produced several important divergences from Keynesian Macroeconomics 1. Independence of Consumption and current Income (life-cycle permanent income hypothesis) 2. Irrelevance of Current Profits to Investment (Modigliani-Miller theorem) 3. Long run independence of inflation and unemployment (natural rate of unemployment) 4. The inability of monetary policy to stabilize output (rational expectations) 5. Irrelevance of Taxes and Budget Deficits to Consumption (Ricardian Equivalenc e)